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Dutch phonology
Dutch has a similar phonology or pronunciation to other West Germanic languages. Consonants The following is a table showing the consonant phonemes of Dutch. Obstruents * The glottal stop is inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words after and and often also at the beginning of a word. * Apart from , all alveolar consonants are laminal, and can be realized as denti-alveolar in Belgium. * and are fully voiced. * is not a native phoneme of Dutch and only occurs in borrowed words, like goal. also occurs as an allophone of when it undergoes voicing assimilation, like in zakdoek . * In the north often devoices and merges with to a post-velar or uvular in all environments. In the south the distinction between the two phonemes is generally preserved as velar }} or post-palatal . Some southern speakers may alternate between the velar and post-palatal articulation, depending on the backness of the preceding or succeeding vowel. Velar, post-velar and uvular variants are called harde g ('hard g'), while the post-palatal variants are called zachte g ('soft g'). There's also a third variant called zwakke harde g ('weak hard g'), in which is realized as and is realized as . It is used in Zeeland and West Flanders, which are h-dropping areas, so that does not merge with glottal variants of and . * In the Netherlands, can devoice and merge with . According to , there are hardly any speakers of what they call "Standard Netherlandic Dutch" who consistently contrast with . In Frisian accents of Dutch, word-initial is always realized as . * In low-prestige varieties of Netherlandic Dutch (e.g. the Amsterdam accent) also can devoice and merge with . In Frisian accents of Dutch, word-initial is always realized as . * Speakers who devoice and may also hypercorrectively voice and : concert ('concert') may thus be compared to the more usual . * Some speakers may realize without voice, that is . In Frisian accents of Dutch, word-initial is always realized as . Some dialects, particularly those from the southwest, exhibit h-dropping. * In the Netherlands, and may have only mid-to-low pitched friction, and for many Netherlandic speakers they are retracted. In Belgium those are more similar to English . * The sequences and are often assimilated to palatalised , alveolo-palatal , postalveolar , or similar realisations. * The sequence is assimilated to a voiceless post-palatal affricate . * and are not native phonemes of Dutch, and usually occur in borrowed words, like show and bagage ('baggage'). Depending on the speaker and the position in the word, they may or may not be distinct from the assimilated realisations of the clusters and . If they are not distinct, they will have the same range of realisations noted above. Sonorants * and assimilate their articulation to a following obstruent in many cases: ** Both become before and , and before and . ** merges into before velars ( ). The realisation of in turn depends on how a following velar fricative is realised. For example, it will be uvular for speakers that realise and as uvulars. ** may be realised as before . This also occurs before or , and before and under assimilation. * Exact pronunciation of varies regionally: ** In the North, is 'clear' before vowels; and 'dark' before consonants and pause. Intervocalic tends to be clear, except after open back vowels . However, some speakers use the dark variant in all intervocalic contexts. Speakers who use dark generally also use it before . ** Some accents, for example the Amsterdam accent or the Rotterdam one have dark in all positions. Conversely, some accents in the eastern regions along the German border (for example around Nijmegen), as well as some Belgian speakers, have clear in all contexts. ** The quality of dark varies; in the North it is pharyngealized , but in final position many speakers produce a strongly pharyngealized vocoid with no alveolar contact ( ) instead. In Belgium it is either velarized or post-palatalized . * The realization of phoneme varies considerably from dialect to dialect and even between speakers in the same dialect area: ** The historically original pronunciation is an alveolar trill , with the alveolar tap as a common allophone. ** The uvular trill is a common alternative, found particularly in the central and southern dialect areas. Uvular pronunciations appear to be gaining ground in the Randstad. Syllable-finally, it may be debuccalized to , much as in German. This is more common in the (south)eastern areas (Limburg, southeast Brabantian, Overijssel). ** The coastal dialects of South Holland produce a voiced uvular fricative , which causes it to merge with a uvular and (if devoicing occurs) with . In these dialects, schijven ("discs") and schrijven ("to write") are homophones. ** The retroflex approximant or "bunched approximant" is found at the end of a syllable by some speakers in the Netherlands, especially those from the Randstad, but not in Belgium. Its use has been increasing in recent years.http://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/306415 In the Leiden dialect it is used everywhere in a word. * The realization of also varies somewhat by area and speaker: ** The main realisation is a labiodental approximant , found particularly in the Netherlands. ** A number of dialects in Belgium and the southern Netherlands use a bilabial approximant , which is like but without strong velarization. ** In Suriname and among immigrant populations, is usual. The final 'n' of the ending ''-en'' (originally , with a variety of meanings) is not pronounced in many areas, unless when stressing the word, making those words homophonous with forms without the ''-n''. It is dropped both word-finally and word-internally in compound words. This pronunciation can be morphologically sensitive and can distinguish words, as the ''-n'' is dropped only when it is part of the distinct ending ''-en'', but not when the word has a single stem that happens to end in ''-en''. Thus, the word teken "(I) draw" always retains its ''-n'' because it is part of an indivisible stem, whereas in teken "ticks (plural)" it is dropped because it is a plural ending. These words are therefore not homophones in dialects which drop ''-n'', despite being spelled identically. Final ''-n'' is retained in the North East (Low Saxon) and the South West (East and West Flemish) where it is the schwa that disappears instead. This creates a syllabic or (after velars) syllabic sound. Examples: laten ; maken . Some Low Saxon dialects that have uvular pronunciation of and (or one of them) also have a syllabic uvular nasal, like in lagen and/or lachen Final devoicing and assimilation Dutch devoices all obstruents at the ends of words. This is partly reflected in the spelling, the voiced "z" in plural hui'z'en becomes hui's'' ('house') in singular. Also, dui'v'en becomes dui'f'' ('dove'). The other cases are always written with the voiced consonant, but a devoiced one is actually pronounced: the "d" in plural baar'd'en is retained in singular spelling baar'd'' ('beard'), but the pronunciation of the latter is , and plural ri'bb'en has singular ri'b'' ('rib'), pronounced . Because of assimilation, often the initial of the next word are usually also devoiced: het vee ('the cattle') is . The opposite may be true for other consonants: ik ben ('I am') . Example words for consonants Vowels Dutch has an extensive vowel inventory consisting of 13 plain vowels and four diphthongs. Vowels can be grouped as back rounded, front unrounded and front rounded. They are also traditionally distinguished by length or tenseness. The vowels are included in the diphthong chart to the right because many dialects realize them as diphthongs, though they behave phonologically like the other long monophthongs. Monophthongs s of Netherlandic Dutch, from ]] Vowel length is not always considered a distinctive feature in Dutch phonology, because it normally co-occurs with changes in vowel quality. One feature or the other may be considered redundant, and some phonemic analyses prefer to treat it as an opposition of tenseness. However, even if not considered part of the phonemic opposition, the long/tense vowels are still realised as phonetically longer than their short counterparts. The changes in vowel quality are also not always the same in all dialects, and in some there may be little difference at all, with length remaining the primary distinguishing feature. And while it is true that older words always pair vowel length with a change in vowel quality, new loanwords have reintroduced phonemic oppositions of length. Compare zonne(n) ("suns") versus zone ("zone") versus zonen ("sons"), or kroes ("mug") versus cruise ("cruise"). | |} Notes: * The distinction between short and long is only slight, and may be considered allophonic for most purposes. In most environments except before , most dialects realise them as short vowels. However, some recent loanwords have introduced distinctively long , making the length distinction marginally phonemic. * Notes about the long close-mid vowels : ** They are often realized as narrow diphthongs . Dialects which use monophthongal pronunciations in all or most positions include most eastern and southern Netherlandic ones, Standard Belgian, and also many other Belgian accents. ** Some speakers from Leiden use a very wide pronunciation of , namely . It is not used before (see below), and it does not merge with , which, for these speakers, is realized as instead. ** Certain dialects of southern Holland have a more central starting position of these diphthongs, tending towards . The dialect of Antwerp realizes as instead. * The long close and close-mid vowels are often pronounced with different vowel height or as centering diphthongs before an in the syllable coda: ** The long close vowels become , or are allophonically lengthened to . ** The long close-mid vowels are commonly raised to near-close , or converted to centering diphthongs or , depending on the dialect. Some speakers may not have such allophones at all, and pronounce in every position. Some, particularly Netherlandic speakers have similar allophones before coda , while others may maintain a long monophthong or even the usual closing diphthongs before . Certain Netherlandic speakers may also neutralize some of the tense-lax vowel contrasts before coda , similarly to neutralizations found in Cockney. Perhaps the most common neutralization is - : heel ('complete', 'full', 'whole', 'very'), Standard Dutch . * The long open-mid vowels only occur in a handful of loanwords, mostly from French. * The open vowels and are generally realised so that the latter is more fronted than the former, although the exact realisations may differ by dialect. ** In many southern areas, the distinction is less clear as has a more backed realisation, closer to . This is especially in Brabantian and Limburgish. In some subdialects, especially the city dialect of Antwerp, this backing is particularly strong, and is fronted towards as well, so that the two sounds effectively switch articulation. ** This swapping of realisations may also happen in some dialects of North Holland, including notably that of Amsterdam. Fronted short only occurs before some consonants, e.g. man . ** In the Low Saxon-speaking areas, the local realisation of may be particularly fronted, and tend towards . Several dialects have retained the distinction between the so-called "sharp-long" and "soft-long" e'' and ''o, a distinction that dates to early Middle Dutch. The sharp-long varieties originate from the Old Dutch long ē'' and ''ō (Proto-Germanic ai and au), while the soft-long varieties arose from short i''/''e and u''/''o that were lengthened in open syllables in early Middle Dutch. This distinction is not preserved in most modern standard Dutch pronunciations and is not recognised in educational materials, but it is still present in many local dialects, such as Antwerpian, West Flemish and Zealandic. In these dialects, the sharp-long vowels are often opening diphthongs such as and , while the soft-long vowels are either plain monophthongs and or slightly closing and . Diphthongs s of Netherlandic Dutch, from ]] Dutch also has several diphthongs. All of them end in a close vowel ( ), but may begin with a variety of other vowels. They are grouped here by their first element. | |} * are the most common diphthongs and commonly the only ones considered "true" phonemes in Dutch. and are rare and occur only in a few words. * The "long/tense" diphthongs are generally analysed phonemically as a long/tense vowel followed by a glide or , where the latter has the allophone between vowels, and between a vowel and a consonant. Thus, what is underlyingly is realised on the surface as or , and likewise for the others. * The first element of is pronounced more open than the short vowel by many speakers, and therefore may be more accurately transcribed as . For some Netherlandic speakers it may be as open as , or even . On the other hand, the dialect of Antwerp realizes as . Many Belgians tend to monophthongize it . * In most of the northern areas, is pronounced with an unrounded onset ( ).Rietveld & Van Heuven 2009, p.70 Some people in Belgium pronounce a monophthong instead. Before a vowel, and sometimes also word-finally, a glide is added as final element: or . * The first element of is often raised by many speakers. In Belgium, a common pronunciation is , although the first element is more open: . Many Belgians tend to monophthongize it to . In the north, it is generally unrounded, giving . In some areas, particularly Holland , the first element may be fronted . * The first element of the long mid diphthongs may be raised or lowered: and respectively. However, not all speakers do this. Speakers that diphthongise and will sometimes also do this to the diphthong, resulting in a falling triphthong with two closing elements: / or the more centralised / . Example words for vowels and diphthongs Stress Most native Germanic words (the bulk of the core vocabulary) are stressed on the root syllable, which is usually the first syllable of the word. Germanic words may also be stressed on the second or later syllable if certain unstressed prefixes are added (particularly in verbs). Non-root stress is common in loanwords, as such words are generally borrowed with the stress placement unchanged. In polysyllabic words, secondary stress may also be present. Certain prefixes and suffixes will receive secondary stress: vòòr.kó.mən, wéér.lòòs. The stressed syllable of a word will receive secondary stress within a compound word: bóm.mèl.ding, ál.co.hol.per.cen.tà.gə. While stress is phonemic, minimal pairs are rare, and marking the stress in written Dutch is optional, never obligatory, but sometimes recommended to distinguish homographs that differ only in stress. The most common practice is to distinguish een (indefinite article, which, as a clitic, bears no stress) from één (the cardinal number one). The current collection at nl.wiktionary It is also written to distinguish some verbs, as stress placement on prefixes also carries a grammatical distinction, such as in vóórkomen (to occur) and voorkómen (to prevent). In vóórkomen and other verbs with a stressed prefix, the prefix is separable and separates as kom voor in the first-person singular present, with the past participle vóórgekomen. On the other hand, verbs with an unstressed prefix are not separable: voorkómen becomes voorkóm in the first-person singular present, and voorkómen in the past participle, without the past participle prefix ge-''. Dutch has a strong stress accent, like other Germanic languages, and uses stress timing due to its relatively complex syllable structure. It has a preference for trochaic rhythm, with relatively stronger and weaker stress alternating between syllables in such a way that syllables with stronger stress are produced at a more or less constant pace. Generally, every alternate syllable before and after the primary stress will receive relative stress, as far secondary stress placements allow: Wá.gə.nì.ngən. Relative stress will preferably not fall on , so syllables containing may disrupt the trochaic rhythm. To restore the pattern, vowels are often syncopated in speech: kín.də.rən > , há.ri.ngən > , vər.gə.líj.king > . In words where secondary stress is imposed lexically onto the syllable immediately following the stressed syllable, a short pause is often inserted after the stressed syllable to maintain the rhythm, to ensure that the stressed syllable has more or less equal length to the trochaic unit following it: bóm..mèl.ding, wéér..lò.zə. Historically, the stress accent has reduced most vowels in unstressed syllables to , as in most other Germanic languages. This process is still somewhat productive, and it is common to reduce vowels to in syllables carrying neither primary nor secondary stress, particularly in syllables that are relatively weakly stressed due to the trochaic rhythm. Weakly stressed long vowels may also be shortened without any significant reduction in vowel quality. For example, ''politie (phonemically ) may be pronounced , or even . Phonotactics The syllable structure of Dutch is ©©©V©©©©. Many words, as in English, begin with three consonants, e.g. straat (street). Words that end in four consonants are mostly superlative adjectives. Historical sound changes Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did not participate in the second Germanic consonant shift except for the last stage, compare * > : German machen vs. Dutch , English make * > : German Schaf vs. Dutch , English sheep * > : German Wasser vs. Dutch , English water * > : German das, Dutch vs. English that Dutch generalised the fricative variety of Proto-Germanic as or , in contrast with German, which generalised the stop , and English, which lost the fricative variety through regular sound changes. Dutch underwent a few changes of its own. For example: * Words with -old, -olt or -ald and -alt lost the in favor of a diphthong as a result of l-vocalization. Compare English old, German alt, Dutch . * changed to (North) or (South), spelled , but this was later reverted in many words by analogy with other forms. Compare English loft, German Luft, Dutch lucht (pronounced or ). * Proto-Germanic turned into through palatalization, which, in turn, became the diphthong , spelled . Long also diphthongized to , spelled . Sample The sample text is a reading of The North Wind and the Sun. Netherlandic The phonetic transcription illustrates a Western Netherlandic, educated, middle-generation speech, and a careful colloquial style. Phonemic transcription ɦɑdə(n) ən dɪsˈkʏsi oːvər də ˈvraːx ˈʋi vɑn ɦʏn ˈtʋeːə(n) də ˈstɛrkstə ʋɑs tun ɛr ˈjœy̯st imɑnt voːrˈbɛi̯ kʋɑm di ən ˈdɪkə ˈʋɑrmə ˈjɑs aːnɦɑt zə spraːkə(n) ˈɑf dɑt ʋi də voːrbɛi̯ɣɑŋər daːrtu zɑu̯ ˈkrɛi̯ɣə(n) zən jɑs œy̯t tə ˈtrɛkə(n) də ˈstɛrkstə zɑu̯ zɛi̯n də ˈnoːrdə(n)ʋɪnt bəɣɔn œy̯t ˈɑlə mɑxt tə ˈblaːzə(n) maːr ɦu ˈɦɑrdər i ˈblis dɛs tə ˈdɪxtər də voːrbɛi̯ɣɑŋər zən jɑs ɔm zɪx ˈɦeːn trɔk tɛnˈslɔtə ɣɑf də noːrdə(n)ʋɪnt ət maːr ˈɔp vɛrˈvɔlɣəns bəɣɔn də ˈzɔn ˈkrɑxtəx tə ˈstraːlə(n) ɛn ɔnˈmɪdələk daːˈrɔp trɔk də voːrbɛi̯ɣɑŋər zən ˈjɑs œy̯t də ˈnoːrdə(n)ʋɪnt kɔn tun slɛxts bəˈaːmə(n) dɑt də ˈzɔn də ˈstɛrkstə ʋɑs/}} Phonetic transcription ɦɑdə ən dɪsˈkʏsi oʊ̯vəɾ də ˈfɾaːχ ˈʋi fɑn ɦʏn ˈtʋeɪ̯ə də ˈstɛɾəkstə ʋɑs tun əɾ ˈjœy̯st imɑnt foə̯ɾˈbɛi̯ kʋɑm di ən ˈdɪkə ˈʋɑɾmə ˈjɑs aːnɦɑt zə spɾaːkə ˈɑf dɑt ʋi də foə̯ɾbɛi̯χɑŋəɾ dəɾtu zʌu̯ ˈkɾɛi̯χə zəɲ ˈjɑs œy̯ tə tɾɛkə də ˈstɛɾəkstə zʌu̯ zɛi̯n də ˈnoə̯ɾdəʋɪnt bəχɔn œy̯t ˈɑlə mɑχ tə ˈblaːzə maːɾ u ˈɦɑɾdəɾ i ˈblis dɛs tə ˈdɪχtəɾ də foə̯ɾbɛi̯χɑŋəɾ zəɲ jɑz ɔm zɪχ ˈɦeɪ̯n tɾɔk tənˈslɔtə χɑf tə noə̯ɾdəʋɪnt ət maːɾ ˈɔp fəɾˈfɔlχənz bəχɔn də ˈzɔn ˈkɾɑχtəχ tə ˈstɾaːlə ɛn ɔˈmɪdələk daːˈɾɔp tɾɔk tə foə̯ɾbɛi̯χɑŋəɾ zəɲ ˈjɑz œy̯t də ˈnoə̯ɾdəʋɪnt kɔn tun slɛχs bəˈʔaːmə dɑtə ˈzɔn də ˈstɛɾəkstə ʋɑs}}Source: . Close-mid vowels are transcribed as diphthongs according to the same page. Orthographic version De noordenwind en de zon hadden een discussie over de vraag wie van hun tweeën de sterkste was, toen er juist iemand voorbijkwam die een dikke, warme jas aanhad. Ze spraken af dat wie de voorbijganger ertoe zou krijgen zijn jas uit te trekken de sterkste zou zijn. De noordenwind begon uit alle macht te blazen, maar hoe harder hij blies, des te dichter de voorbijganger zijn jas om zich heen trok. Tenslotte gaf de noordenwind het maar op. Vervolgens begon de zon krachtig te stralen, en onmiddellijk daarop trok de voorbijganger zijn jas uit. De noordenwind kon toen slechts beamen dat de zon de sterkste was. Belgian The phonetic transcription illustrates the speech of "a highly educated 45-year-old male who speaks Belgian Dutch with a very slight regional Limburg accent." Sentence stress is not transcribed. Phonemic transcription ʋaːrə(n) ryzi aːn ət maːkə(n) oːvər ʋi ɦɛt stɛrkstə ʋɑs tun ɛr ən rɛi̯zɪɣər voːrbɛi̯ kʋɑm mɛt ən ʋɑrmə jɑs aːn zə spraːkə(n) ɑf ((!)) dɑt dəɣeːnə di ɛrɪn zɑu̯ slaːɣə(n) ɔm də rɛi̯zɪɣər zɛi̯n jɑs tə dun œy̯trɛkə(n) də stɛrkstə ʋɑs də noːrdə(n)ʋɪnt blis zoː ɦɑrt ɦɛi̯ kɔn maːr ɦu ɦɑrdər ɦɛi̯ blis ɦu ʋɑrmər də rɛi̯zɪɣər zɪx ɪndʏfəldə œy̯tɛi̯ndələk ɣɑf ɦɛi̯ zɛi̯n poːɣɪŋ ɔp dɑn bəɣɔn də zɔn ɦɑrt tə sxɛi̯nə(n) ɛn də rɛi̯zɪɣər deːt ɔnmɪdələk zɛi̯n jɑs œy̯t də noːrdə(n)ʋɪnt must tuɣeːvə(n) dɑt də zɔn ɦɛt stɛrkstə ʋɑs/}} Phonetic transcription waːʀə ʀyzi aːn ət maːkə ʔoːvər wi ɦət stɛʀkstə wɑs tun əʀ ən ʀɛi̯zɪɣəʀ voːʀbɛi̯ kwɑm mɛt ən wɑʀmə jɑzaːn zə spraːkən ʔɑf dɑt dəɣeːnə di ʔəʀɪn zɔu̯ slaːɣə ʔɔm də ʀɛi̯zɪɣəʀ zɛi̯n jɑs tə dun ʔœy̯trɛkə də stɛʀkstə wɑs də noʀdəwɪnts blis soː ɦɑʀt ɦɛi̯ kɔn maːʀ ɦu ɦɑʀdəʀ ɦɛi̯ blis hu wɑʀməʀ də ʀɛi̯zɪɣəʀ zɪx ɪndʏfəldə ʔœy̯tɛi̯ndələk ɡɑf hɛi̯ zɛi̯n poːɣɪŋ ʔɔp dɑn bəɣɔn də zɔn ɦɑʀt tə sxɛi̯nə ʔɛn də ʀɛi̯zɪɣəʀ deːt ɔmɪdələk sɛi̯n jɑzœy̯t də noːʀdəwɪntˢ must tuɣeːvə dɑtə zɔn hət stɛʀkstə wɑs}} Orthographic version De noordenwind en de zon waren ruzie aan het maken over wie het sterkste was toen er een reiziger voorbij kwam met een warme jas aan. Ze spraken af dat degene die erin zou slagen om de reiziger zijn jas te doen uittrekken de sterkste was. De noordenwind blies zo hard hij kon, maar hoe harder hij blies hoe warmer de reiziger zich induffelde. Uitendelijk gaf hij zijn poging op. Dan begon de zon hard te schijnen en de reiziger deed onmiddellijk zijn jas uit. De noordenwind moest toegeven dat de zon het sterkste was. See also * Wikipedia:IPA for Dutch and Afrikaans * Dutch orthography * Hard and soft G in Dutch * Afrikaans phonology References Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * External links Category:Language phonologies Phonology Category:Dutch phonology